5.5 Insecticides

The insecticides and acaricides used to control fruit pests can be divided into several categories according to their chemical composition, mode of action, persistence, and other properties. To plan and carry out an effective spray program, it is important to understand these characteristics. A simplified classification of most of the insecticides and acaricides recommended in this bulletin is given, along with some of their general properties and uses.

Notes on Materials

The hazard of a material poisoning honey bees is given as follows: High = hazardous to bees at any time; 1 day to 2 wk residual toxicity. Moderate = not hazardous if applied in either evening or early morning when bees are not foraging, except during periods of high temperature; 3 hr to 1 day residual toxicity. Low = not hazardous to bees at any time; 1 hr to 1 day residual toxicity.

5.5.1 Organophosphates

Most organophosphate insecticides are highly toxic to warm-blooded animals when inhaled, swallowed, or absorbed through the skin. Persons handling or applying these materials should take every precaution for their own safety and for that of others. Although the organophos-phates in general are less persistent than the chlorinated hydrocarbons, their toxicity often prohibits their use close to harvest (see following materials). Organophosphates are contact insecticides as well as stomach poisons. Therefore, they are useful for a quick kill of all insect forms present at the time of application, as well as for reasonable residual protection. When used alone or in combination with other materials, some organophosphates cause phytotoxicity on fruit varieties. Check this reference under the pest, the crop, and the product for more details about this situation.

Diazinon has caused russeting or related finish problems on R.I. Greening, Golden Delicious, and Baldwin. No injury has been reported on McIntosh or closely related varieties. Observations on other varieties are limited. The material should not be used in combination with copper. It is principally used prebloom for control of San Jose scale or postbloom for broad-spectrum control of major pests. It is generally less persistent than other standard phosphates and has a high bee-poisoning hazard.

Malathion is a mild phosphate that is used where a high degree of safety to people or animals is desired. It is no longer labeled for apples. It is registered for use on cherry, peach, nectarine and apricot for a variety of pests including aphids, scales, codling moth, oriental fruit moth, plum curculio and Japanese beetle. It has a very short PHI, is compatible with most other insecticides and fungicides and has a high bee-poisoning hazard.

Phosmet (*Imidan) is a broad-spectrum material with a lower toxicity to mammals than many other commonly used organophosphates. It is compatible with most commonly used insecticides and fungicides, but is incompatible with alkaline materials such as Bordeaux mixture and lime. It may cause severe leaf injury to sweet cherries, particularly those of Emperor Francis parentage. It can be used in summer sprays in integrated mite-control programs because of its low toxicity to predator mites. In some seasons in which rainfall has been negligible during the late summer, the fruit occasionally shows a buildup of the carrier used in the wettable powder. *Imidan is effective in controlling codling moth, apple maggot, redbanded leafroller, plum curculio, peach twig borer, and oriental fruit moth on apple, pear, peach, apricot, nectarine, and plums to be used for prunes. It has been ineffective against phosphate-resistant populations of pear psylla. It has a high bee-poisoning hazard.

5.5.2 Carbamates

Carbamates are presently represented by 3 insecticides widely used on fruit trees.

Carbaryl (Sevin) applications made within 30 days after petal fall have a pronounced thinning effect on most apple varieties. Sevin does not thin pears. It is a broad-spectrum material that acts as a stomach as well as contact poison and controls various fruit insects, including organophosphate-resistant pests such as white apple leafhopper. It is one of the low-hazard insecticides and can be used until 1 day before harvest on most fruit crops, as well as in home orchards. Sevin is very toxic to bees and, therefore, should not be used just before bloom; it is also toxic to certain predator mite species.

Methomyl (*Lannate) spray injury to foliage and fruit resulting in fruit drop has been observed on Early McIntosh-type varieties. This material is highly toxic to predator mites and, when used in a seasonal program, has promoted the buildup of woolly apple aphid. It has been registered for controlling organophosphate-resistant apple aphid, rosy apple aphid, leafrollers, tufted apple bud moth, lesser appleworm, white apple leafhopper, and tentiform leafminer, as well as codling moth. Although methomyl has broad-spectrum activity, its short residual activity (5-7 days) makes it less effective against fruit feeders (such as plum curculio, apple maggot, or codling moth) than are organophosphate materials. *Lannate has a 96 hour reentry period for peaches, 72 hours for apples, and 48 hours for pears. It has a high bee-poisoning hazard.

Oxamyl (*†Vydate) is a combination insecticide, nematicide, and acaricide with systemic properties, which translocates throughout the leaves and into the roots of fruit trees. It is formulated as a methanol-based liquid for foliar or drench treatment of newly planted trees, primarily for nematode control. It is recommended on bearing apple trees as a foliar spray for control of spotted tentiform leafminer, aphids, leafhoppers, and mites. It is a mite suppressant requiring back-to-back applications for effective control. When applied between petal fall and 30 days thereafter, thinning may occur. *†Vydate is not a broad-spectrum insecticide, but is hard on mite predators. It has a moderate bee-poisoning hazard. Not registered for use in Nassau or Suffolk Counties.

5.5.3 Pyrethroids

This group of insecticides has broad-spectrum activity and considerable efficacy at low dosage. These compounds are similar in terms of biological activity, residual effectiveness, toxicity, and effects on nontarget organisms. In addition to being directly toxic to insects, pyrethroids are also repellent. They are generally very persistent, and some are reportedly more effective at cooler temperatures. Although mammalian toxicity of most pyrethroids is relatively low, direct exposure can cause allergic reactions such as skin irritations and difficulty in breathing. Fish are highly sensitive to pyrethroid insecticides. Therefore, drift or runoff to bodies of water should be avoided when spraying. Pyrethroids can have undesirable effects on nontarget organisms in the orchard. Most pyrethroids, when used postbloom, have a temporary suppressive effect on spider mites, but populations often recover quickly, resulting in outbreaks. Predator mites are very sensitive to pyrethroid insecticides and are repelled for many weeks by the residue. Postbloom use of these compounds on apple or pear can also result in outbreaks of the woolly apple aphid on apple and Comstock mealybug on apple or pear. Currently, Cornell does not recommend multiple applications of pyrethroids in regular cover-spray programs on any fruit crop because of secondary pest problems and the increased likelihood of resistance development. However, pyrethroids are valuable for the control of special pest problems on fruit that are difficult to control with organophosphate or carbamate insecticides. To extend the field life of these compounds and delay development of resistance, they should not be applied more than once or twice/season in an orchard.

Bifenthrin (*Brigade) is labeled for use on pears in NY. This is a relatively established pyrethroid in other crops, and was one of the first that demonstrated mite control in addition to the efficacy profile common to other members of this family. Besides European and twospotted spider mites, the label also includes aphids, codling moth, green fruitworm and leafrollers, leafhoppers, plant and stink bugs, and plum curculio. Pear psylla is not on the label. This material has a high bee poisoning hazard.

Cyfluthrin (*Baythroid) is registered for use on all pome and stone fruits in New York State. This synthetic pyrethroid has activity on a broad range of the major insect pest species in tree fruit crops, including leafhoppers, internal Lepidoptera, leafrollers, plum curculio, apple maggot, sawflies, true bugs, San Jose scale crawlers, American plum borer, black cherry aphid, and cherry fruit fly. It has a high bee poisoning hazard.

Esfenvalerate (*Asana XL). *Asana XL is a purified ester of fenvalerate with generally better activity, which is reflected in its low labeled usage rates. *Asana XL is registered for control of apple, pear, and stone fruit pests. It is particularly useful for prebloom insect control on apple and against pear psylla; however, tolerance or resistance to fenvalerate has been documented in some New York pear psylla populations. It has a high bee-poisoning hazard.

Fenpropathrin (*Danitol) is labeled for control of insect pests of pome and stone fruits, including leafminers, leafhoppers, leafrollers, tarnished plant bug, aphids, stink bugs, plum curculio, internal leps, and apple maggot, with activity also against European red mite. It has a high bee poisoining hazard. Note that a supplemental label was approved in 2012 that adds additional pests and provides revised use directions for some pests.

Lambda-cyhalothrin (*Lambda-CY EC, *Warrior) is labeled for control of insect pests of all tree fruits, including leafrollers, codling moth, oriental fruit moth, lesser appleworm, green fruitworm, leafminers, apple maggot, cherry fruit flies, plum curculio, plant bugs, leafhoppers, aphids, pear psylla, peachtree borers, American plum borer, Japanese beetle and San Jose scale. It has a high bee poisoning hazard.

Permethrin (*Pounce) is labeled for control of insect pests of cherries, pears, and peaches. On apples, use is restricted to prebloom and petal fall applications. Its recommended use is similar to that of esfenvalerate. It has a high bee-poisoning hazard.

Zeta-cypermethrin (*Mustang Maxx) Refer to Zeta-Cypermethrin/Avermectin B1 in 5.5.5 Pre Mixes.

5.5.4 Neonicotinoids

Neonicotinoid insecticides are chemically related to nicotine. The neonicotinoids show reduced toxicity compared with earlier classes of broad-spectrum materials such as organophosphates and carbamates. Most neonicotinoids show much lower toxicity in mammals than insects, but some breakdown products are toxic to some non-target species, including beneficial insects. Neonicotinoids are currently represented by four single-a.i. products widely used on tree fruits in New York, plus as components of several pre-mix formulations containing more than one active ingredient (refer to section 5.5.5).

Acetamiprid (*Assail) belongs to the neonicotinoid group of insecticides (along with *Admire Pro and *†Actara). It was registered by the US EPA under the reduced risk pesticide policy and is considered a replacement for older OP insecticides. *Assail has a spectrum of effectiveness across several insect groups, and is active against pests such as plum curculio, apple maggot, internal leps, aphids, leafhoppers, leafminers, San Jose scale, European apple sawfly and mullein plant bug, plus pear pests such as pear psylla and Comstock mealybug. It has low toxicity to honey bees and most beneficial insects, although some flaring of mites has been reported by researchers.

As of January 1, 2023, all acetamiprid products labeled for foliar applications are restricted-use in New York State.

Imidacloprid (*Admire Pro, *Leverage) is a broad spectrum contact and locally systemic chloronicotinyl insecticide with low mammalian toxicity. It is primarily effective against aphids, whiteflies, thrips, scales (crawlers), pyslla, leafhoppers, mealybugs, some beetle and weevil species, and leafminers. The original *Provado formulation has been replaced by *Admire Pro, which is labeled on pome and stone fruits for aphids (except woolly apple aphid), leafminers, leafhoppers, San Jose scale, pear psylla, mealybug, Japanese beetle, cherry fruit flies and San Jose scale. It has also shown activity against pear midge when applied at petal fall. It is additionally labeled for use as a soil-applied product against woolly apple aphid. This material has no effect on any mites, beneficial or phytophagous, but is hard on Stethorus. High bee-poisoning hazard, exhibiting toxicity on contact plus repellency and hive disorientation.

    Compatibility note: may be mixed with other pesticides, although a preliminary test of compatibility with candidate materials is recommended. When preparing tank mixtures, add wettable powders first, then \*Admire Pro and other flowables, and emulsifiable concentrates last.

    As of January 1, 2023, all imidacloprid products labeled for foliar applications are restricted-use in New York State.

Thiamethoxam (*†Actara) is a broad-spectrum neonicotinoid material labeled for use in pome and stone fruits against a number of chewing and sucking pests. It moves rapidly into plant mesophyll tissues, where it is locally systemic and protected from rapid degradation. It shows activity against plum curculio, aphids, European apple sawfly, leafminers, leafhoppers, mealybugs, cherry fruit fly, stink bugs, plant bugs, thrips, and pear psylla. Although it has little effect on predatory mites or beneficial insects, it is toxic to fish and aquatic invertebrates, and highly toxic to bees exposed to direct treatment, although relatively non-toxic when dried. It is therefore categorized as having a moderate bee poisoning hazard. Not registered for use in Nassau or Suffolk Counties. When making multiple applications to pome and stone fruits, do not exceed a total of 0.172 lbs a.i. of thiamethoxam-containing products per acre per growing season. As of January 1, 2023, all thiamethoxam products labeled for foliar applications are restricted-use in New York State.

5.5.5 Pre-Mixes

Pre-mix products are formulations of insecticides sold as pre-mixed combinations of at least two active ingredients that are available as single-a.i. products. For best effectiveness and insecticide resistance management, their use should be reserved for situations when multiple pest species are present and appropriately matched to the combination of active ingredients and modes of action contained in the product.

Chlorantraniliprole/Lambda-cyhalothrin (*†Besiege) is labeled in NY against a wide range of pests of pome fruit and stone fruit. It is a combined formulation of chlorantraniliprole, the a.i. found in *†Altacor, plus the pryrethroid lambda-cyhalothrin, the a.i. in *Warrior. The pome fruit label includes internal worms and leafrollers, aphids, (excluding woolly apple aphid), apple maggot and cherry fruit fly adults, leafhoppers, leafminers, plum curculio, Japanese beetle, pear psylla, plant bugs, stink bugs, and other caterpillars. The stone fruit label also includes peachtree and American plum borers. It has a high bee poisoning hazard.

Chlorantraniliprole/Thiamethoxam (*†Voliam Flexi) is registered for use against a range of pests in pome and stone fruits in NYS. This product is a mixture of thiamethoxam, the a.i. of Actara, and chlorantraniliprole, the a.i. found in *†Altacor. The label lists lepidopteran pests such as codling moth and oriental fruit moth, obliquebanded leafroller, leafminers and green fruitworm; plum curculio; European apple sawfly; leafhoppers and aphids (except woolly apple aphid); pear psylla; plus (in stone fruits only) cherry fruit fly, stink bugs, tarnished plant bug and thrips. It has a 12-hr REI, and a PHI of 35 days in pome fruits, 14 days in stone fruits. The label contains NY-specific language identifying it as a restricted-use product, and prohibits use on Long Island, within 100 ft of a water body, and aerial application. Additionally, due to NY and label-listed restrictions on thiamethoxam-containing products, no more than a total of 14 oz/acre of formulated product may be applied per season; this use corresponds to the 0.172 lb a.i./acre of thiamethoxam allowed on pome and stone fruits, whether applied as *†Voliam Flexi, *†Actara, or *†Endigo. This product is highly toxic to bees exposed to direct treatment on blooming crops or weeds; it may not be applied between early pink and petal fall in apples, between green cluster and petal fall in pears, and between swollen bud and petal fall in stone fruit. As of January 1, 2023, all thiamethoxam-containing products labeled for foliar applications are restricted-use in New York State.

Cyantraniliprole/Abamectin (*† Minecto Pro) is a pre-mix combination of cyantraniliprole, a 2nd-generation member of the anthranilic diamide group (which activates the insect’s ryanodine receptors, stimulating release of calcium from muscle tissues, causing paralysis and death), and abamectin, a natural fermentation product in the avermectin class with an agonist mode of action on the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), found in several products labeled to control mites and pear psylla. This product is labeled for pome fruit and stone fruit use in NY, to control Lepidoptera species as well as mites and pear psylla. It is a restricted use pesticide with a high bee-poisoning hazard; not registered for use in Nassau or Suffolk counties.

Cyfluthrin/Imidacloprid (*Leverage) is labeled in NY against a wide range of pests of pome fruit and stone fruit. It is a combined formulation of imidacloprid, the a.i. found in *Admire Pro, plus the pyrethroid cyfluthrin (or, in the *Leverage 360 formulation, beta-cyfluthrin), the a.i. in *Baythroid. The pome fruit label includes internal worms and leafrollers, aphids (except woolly apple aphid), apple maggot (combined with a sticker), sawfly, plum curculio, San Jose scale crawlers, and plant bugs; the stone fruit label adds Japanese beetle, American plum borer, and cherry fruit fly, among others. This product may not be applied prebloom. It has a high bee poisoning hazard. As of January 1, 2023, all imidacloprid-containing products labeled for foliar applications are restricted-use in New York State.

Lambda-cyhalothrin/Thiamethoxam (*†Endigo) is registered in NY pome fruits and stone fruits against a range of pests. This is a pre-mix, combining lambda-cyhalothrin, the a.i. in *Warrior, with thiamethoxam, the a.i. in *†Actara. The pome fruit label includes leafhoppers, leafminers, stink bugs, plant bugs, Japanese beetle, internal worms, apple maggot and sawflies. The stone fruit label includes aphids, stink bugs, plant bugs, Japanese beetle, and borer species. Because of pollinator restrictions, do not apply in apples/pears during pink bud/green cluster through bloom, or in stone fruits from swollen bud through bloom. Special NY restrictions for use on apples includes a maximum of 19.0 fl oz/A per season or 0.172 lb a.i./A thiamethoxam-containing products/A/growing season. PHI is 35 days in pome fruits, 14 days in stone fruits. REI = 24 hr. Not for use in Nassau or Suffolk Counties. It has a high bee poisoning hazard. As of January 1, 2023, all thiamethoxam-containing products labeled for foliar applications are restricted-use in New York State.

Pyriproxyfen/Spirotetramat (Senstar) is a combination of the a.i.s in Movento and Esteem, and is registered for use against a range of foliar pests in pome and stone fruit in NYS. Its label includes aphids (including woolly apple aphid), mealybugs, pear psylla, San Jose scale, lecanium scale, and white peach scale, with suppression effects on several additional species. Not toxic to honeybee adults, but potentially toxic to honeybee larvae through residues in pollen and nectar.

Thiamethoxam/Abamectin (*†Agri-Flex) is registered for use against a range of pests in apples and pears in NYS. This is a restricted-use product and use in Nassau and Suffolk Counties is prohibited. This product is a mixture of thiamethoxam, the a.i. of *†Actara, and abamectin, the a.i. found in *Agri-Mek. In apples and pears, its labeled for control of plum curculio, European apple sawfly, green peach aphids, Comstock mealybug, leafminers and leafhoppers, and mites. Additionally in pears, labeled for pear psylla. The label states that it must be mixed with a nonionic adjuvant or horticultural spray oil (not a dormant oil). It has a 12-hour REI, and a PHI of 35 days. Due to NY restrictions on thiamethoxam-containing products, no more than a total of 17.3 fl oz/acre of *†Agri-Flex may be applied per season. Note that a total of 0.172 lb a.i./acre of thiamethoxam is allowed to be applied per season in NYS whether applied as *†Agri-Flex, *†Voliam Flexi, *†Actara, or *†Endigo. This product is highly toxic to bees exposed to direct treatment on blooming crops or weeds; it may not be applied between early pink and petal fall in apples, or between green cluster and petal fall in pears. As of January 1, 2023, all thiamethoxam-containing products labeled for foliar applications are restricted-use in New York State.

Zeta-Cypermethrin/Avermectin B1 (*Gladiator; *Mustang Maxx) *Gladiator is labeled in NY against a wide range of pests of pome fruit and stone fruit. It is a combined formulation of the pyrethroid zeta-cypermethrin, plus the macrocyclic glycoside avermectin B1, which is the major component of the insecticide/miticide abamectin, the a.i. found in *Agri-Mek and related products. The pome fruit label includes internal worms and leafrollers, apple maggot, European apple sawfly, plum curculio, pear psylla, rosy apple aphid, spirea aphid, leafminers and leafhoppers, tarnished plant bug, stink bugs, and Japanese beetle. The stone fruit label lists American plum borer, leafrollers, leafhoppers, peachtree borers, plum curculio, oriental fruit moth, stink bugs, tarnished plant bugs. It is also labeled for European red mite and twospotted spider mite in all tree fruit crops. *Mustang Maxx, which contains only zeta-cypermethrin, is similarly labeled for use against a wide range of insect pests in pome and stone fruits, but is not labeled for use against mites. It has a 2(ee) label for spotted lanternfly in pome and stone fruits, and for spotted wing drosophila (SWD) in stone fruits; it also has a 24(c) Special Local Need label with a reduced 3-day PHI against SWD in harvested cherries. Both products have a high bee poisoning hazard.

5.5.6 Other Materials

Abamectin (*Agri-Mek, *Agri-Flex, *Abba) is a natural fermentation product containing a macrocyclic glycoside, used on apples and pears as an acaricide/insecticide. When used as currently recommended, it controls European red mite and pear psylla, and aids in the control of spotted tentiform leafminer. Abamectin is toxic to bees and predator mites on contact, but the foliar residue dissipates quickly, making it essentially non-toxic to these species after a few hours (low bee-poisoning hazard).

Afidopyropen (*†Versys Inscalis) is registered for control of aphids in pome and stone fruit. This product works by disrupting the insect’s sensory responses. The label lists target species including green apple aphid, rosy apple aphid, and black cherry aphid; suppression for woolly apple aphid. It has translaminar movement within the treated leaf. *†Versys Inscalis is not acutely toxic to bees, although use at the maximum rate may have some short-term behavioral effects on adult bees. Consult label for buffer zone requirements; not for distribution or use in Nassau or Suffolk Counties.

Azadirachtin (Aza-Direct, § Neemix 4.5) is derived from the seeds of the neem tree, Azadirachta indica, which is widely distributed throughout Asia and Africa. Azadirachtin has been shown to have repellent, antifeedent, or growth regulating insecticidal activity against a large number of insect species and some mites. It has also been reported to act as a repellent to nematodes. Neem extracts have also been used in medicines, soap, toothpaste and cosmetics. It shows some activity against leafminers, leafhoppers, mealybugs, aphids, caterpillars, tarnished plant bug and pear psylla, but repeated applications at short intervals are probably necessary for acceptable control of most pests. Azadirachtin is relatively short-lived and mammalian toxicity is low (rat oral LD50 >10,000). It can be used up to and including the day of harvest and reentry is permitted without protective clothing after the spray has dried. It is relatively nontoxic to beneficials, but toxic to fish, aquatic invertebrates, and bees exposed to direct treatment, although relatively non-toxic when dried. It is therefore categorized as having a moderate bee poisoning hazard.

Bacillus thuringiensis (§Bt, §Dipel, Deliver, Javelin, §Agree) is a microbial insecticide specifically for the control of caterpillars. It contains spores and crystalline endotoxin that must be ingested by larvae with high gut pH to provide control. It is effective against many fruit pests, including leafrollers and fruitworms. Although this material will control codling moth and other internal lepidopteran apple pests, it does not provide as effective control as do most conventional insecticides. One exception is the obliquebanded leafroller, which has become so difficult to control with conventional toxicants that the Bt products work at least as well as any material available. This material is exempt from requirements for a tolerance on all raw agricultural commodities, thus it can be sprayed up until harvest. It is harmless to humans, animals, and beneficial insects, including the honey bee.

Buprofezin (*†Centaur) is an insect growth regulator registered in pome and stone fruits for the control of the nymphal stages of San Jose scale, mealybugs, leafhoppers and pear psylla. It works by inhibiting chitin biosynthesis, suppressing oviposition by adults, and reducing viability of eggs. Treated susceptible pests may remain alive on the plant for 3-7 days, but feeding damage during this time is typically very low. It is not disruptive to beneficial insects and mites, and has a low bee-poisoning hazard. Not registered for use in Nassau or Suffolk Counties.

Burkholderia spp. strain A396 (§Venerate) is a biological insecticide containing killed cells of a bacterium that kills insects by enzymatic degradation of exoskeletal structures and interference with the molting process; it acts via both contact activity and ingestion. It is labeled in pome fruits against San Jose scale, pear psylla, stink bug and plum curculio, and in stone fruits against leafrollers and other Lepidoptera. It is non-toxic to beneficial insects and mites, and has a low bee-poisoning hazard.

Chlorantraniliprole (*†Altacor) belongs to a new chemical class, the anthranilic diamides, which activate the insect’s ryanodine receptors, stimulating release of calcium from muscle tissues, and causing paralysis and death. *†Altacor is labeled for the control of a range of insect pests in pome and stone fruits, including codling moth, oriental fruit moth, and obliquebanded leafroller. Other species listed on the label include green fruitworm, spotted tentiform leafminer, apple sawfly, European corn borer, and suppression of apple maggot, cherry fruit fly, white apple leafhopper, and plum curculio. It has low toxicity to bees, beneficial mites, birds, fish and mammals. Not registered for use in Kings, Queens, Nassau, or Suffolk Counties.

Chromobacterium subtsugae (Grandevo WDG) is a microbial pesticide containing fermentation solids derived from a bacterium, and is labeled against a range of pests, including internal feeding Lepidoptera, leafrollers, and spotted wing drosophila in pome fruit and stone fruit. It functions primarily as a stomach poison, impacting feeding, fecundity and oviposition. It is non-toxic to beneficial insects and mites; however, it is toxic to aquatic invertebrates. It has a low bee-poisoning hazard,

Codling Moth Granulosis Virus (§Cyd-X, §Madex, §Virosoft CP4) These products contain an insecticidal baculovirus, Cydia pomonella granulovirus, which is effective against the larval form of the codling moth; Cyd-X is registered for use in apples, pears, and plums; §Madex, which contain the V22 isolate and is also effective against oriental fruit moth, is registered in all pome and stone fruits. This biological insecticide must be ingested in order to be effective, after which the viral occlusion bodies dissolve in the larval midgut and release infectious virions. These enter the cells lining the digestive tract, where they replicate; eventually, the other tissues are infected and the larva stops feeding and eventually (within 3-7 days) dies. After death, the larva disintegrates, releasing billions of new occlusion bodies, which may infect other larvae upon ingestion. No adverse effect to fish, wildlife or beneficial organisms has been observed; it has a low bee-poisoning hazard.

Cyantraniliprole (*†Exirel) is a 2nd-generation member of the chemical class of anthranilic diamides, which activate the insect’s ryanodine receptors, stimulating release of calcium from muscle tissues, and causing paralysis and death. Like *†Altacor, *†Exirel is labeled for the control of a range of insect pests in pome and stone fruits, including codling moth, oriental fruit moth, and obliquebanded leafroller. Other species listed on the label include green fruitworm, spotted tentiform leafminer, European apple sawfly, white apple leafhopper, cherry fruit fly, spotted wing drosophila, and Japanese beetle, with activity against pear psylla and plum curculio, and suppression of apple maggot. It has high toxicity to bees, but low toxicity to birds, fish and mammals. Not registered for use in Nassau or Suffolk Counties.

Cyclaniliprole (*†Verdepryn, *†Cyclaniliprole) is a newer member of the diamide group (IRAC 28), which includes *†Altacor and *†Exirel, that is effective against plum curculio and European apple sawfly as well as the fruit-feeding leps such as codling moth, oriental fruit moth, and OBLR. Additional pests on the label include pear psylla, white apple leafhopper, European corn borer, leafminers, other leafrollers, cherry fruit fly, spotted wing drosophila and Japanese beetle. Restricted use, labeled in pome and stone fruits; not for use in Nassau or Suffolk Counties. It has a high bee-poisoning hazard.

Emamectin Benzoate (*Proclaim) is registered for use on pome fruits in New York. This restricted-use material is a soluble granule formulation of emamectin benzoate, which is a second-generation avermectin insecticide related to *Agri-Mek. The primary target pests are leafrollers, leafminers, and fruitworms; however, the label also lists suppression of codling moth, oriental fruit moth, lesser appleworm, pear psylla, and spider mites (European red mite and twospotted spider mite). In 2007, it was granted a 2(ee) registration for the control of 1st generation (only) codling moth in apples. *Proclaim is translaminar, being absorbed quickly into the leaf tissue, and forming a reservoir of a.i. against plant-feeding pests. Although it is most effective when ingested, limited contact activity does exist for a short period after application. Addition of a penetrating adjuvant such as horticultural mineral oil or a nonionic surfactant is recommended. It has a high bee poisoning hazard.

Flonicamid (Beleaf) is labeled against aphids and plant bugs in NY for pome fruit and stone fruit; the label classifies it as a member of the pyridinecarboxamide family, an IRAC Section 29 material. It has not been tested in NY field trials, but other researchers have reported good efficacy against green peach aphid and tarnished plant bug in peaches. The label also lists apple aphid, black cherry aphid, rosy apple aphid, spirea aphid and woolly apple aphid. It has a low bee poisoning hazard.

Flupyradifurone (*†Sivanto Prime) is a selective insecticide in the butenolide chemical class, with efficacy against sucking pests. It is labeled in pome fruits for the control of San Jose scale, oystershell scale, leafhoppers, aphids (except woolly apple aphid), and pear psylla; in stone fruits, it is labeled against aphids and San Jose scale. It is xylem mobile and exhibits translaminar movement, causing feeding cessation and quick knockdown of adults. It has a Reduced Risk designation from the EPA, showing minimal effect on beneficial insects and predatory mites, and is categorized as having a low bee poisoning hazard.

GS-omega/kappa-Hxtx-Hv1a (Spear-Lep; Vestaron, new IRAC Group 32) is registered for control of Lepidoptera in pome and stone fruit. This material, which has a biological peptide as the active ingredient, must be tank mixed with a Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) product. When ingested along with Bt, it functions as a central nervous system inhibitor. The label lists target species including codling moth, oriental fruit moth, leafrollers, fruitworms and gypsy moth. It has no impact on bees, other pollinators, or non-target species; it has a 4 hr REI, 0-day PHI, and is MRL-exempt. Spear-Lep is being sold in a regional exclusive distributorship with Nutrien.

Indoxacarb (Avaunt) is a broad-spectrum oxadiazine labeled in apples and pears against plum curculio, apple maggot, and European apple sawfly, with some activity also on Lepidoptera such as codling moth, oriental fruit moth and leafminers, as well as leafhoppers. The active ingredient is activated by the insect to an insecticidal form only upon ingestion or absorption through the cuticle, after which it causes paralysis by interference with the sodium flow into nerve cells. It has generally slight to no effects on beneficial insects and mites, but is highly toxic to bees exposed to direct treatment and relatively non-toxic when dried. It is therefore categorized as having a moderate bee poisoning hazard.

Insecticidal soaps (M-Pede, Des-X) are concentrates made from biodegradable fatty acids and are contact insecticides that can be effective against such soft-bodied arthropods as aphids, mealybugs, and psyllids. They can provide suppression of pear psylla when used in a seasonal spray program, but the residual period is short, and uniform drying conditions are required to prevent droplet residues on the fruit surface. They have a low bee-poisoning hazard.

Kaolin (§Surround) is a naturally occurring clay mineral that has many uses as a direct and indirect food additive, in food contact items, cosmetics and toiletries, and as an inert ingredient in many pesticide formulations. When applied, the 95WP crop protectant forms a white, mineral-based particle film intended to reduce the damage to plants caused by certain arthropod and disease pests, as well as environmental stress caused by solar effects. In research trials in apples, it has shown some preventive efficacy against plum curculio, internal Lepidoptera such as codling moth and oriental fruit moth, leafrollers, phytophagous mites, leafhoppers, and apple maggot. In pears, it can additionally suppress pear psylla, and in stone fruits it reduces feeding damage from Japanese beetle. Frequent applications (7-10-day intervals) and maximal coverage are advised in New York while there is active foliar growth. §Surround has a low bee-poisioning hazard.

Methoxyfenozide (*†Intrepid) is the more-active successor to Confirm (tebufenozide); it imitates the natural insect molting hormone, and works by initiating the molting process within a few hours of ingestion. The premature molt makes it impossible for the larva to complete the shedding of the original exoskeleton. The larva is trapped within the old cuticle and death occurs, usually within 2-5 days, due to starvation and dehydration. *†Intrepid is labeled for use in apples and pears, principally against obliquebanded leafroller, although activity against oriental fruit moth, codling moth and lesser appleworm is also exhibited. *†Intrepid is essentially safe to birds, fish, and most beneficials; however, it is toxic to aquatic invertebrates. It has a low bee-poisoning hazard. Not registered for use in Nassau or Suffolk Counties.

Novaluron (*Rimon) has a FIFRA Section 24(c)(Special Local Need) Supplemental registration in N.Y. on apples for the control of a range of pests including codling moth, oriental fruit moth, obliquebanded leafroller, spotted tentiform leafminer, and redbanded leafroller. This product is an insect growth regulator that disrupts chitin synthesis in immature insects and eggs deposited on residues; it has no effect on adult stages, and must be ingested to be effective. One application per season is allowed, and users must have the SLN label in their possession at the time of application. Novaluron is moderately to highly toxic to many beneficial arthropods, but relatively non-toxic to predatory mites. It has a moderate bee poisoning hazard.

Pheromones for mating disruption (§Isomate, §Checkmate) Synthetic pheromones are available for disrupting the chemical communication of certain insect pests, thereby preventing them from mating and producing larvae that injure the crop. Pest-specific pheromones are released from dispensers or microcapsules placed or sprayed in the orchard before the initiation of flight, and can reduce or in some cases eliminate the need for supplementary insecticidal sprays. This approach works best in large (5-10A or more), rectangular plantings, where the pheromone concentration in the air is more uniform and can be maintained at a high level. Border insecticide sprays may be needed in orchards adjacent to sources of adult immigration or in other high pressure situations.

Pyrethrin (§PyGanic) is produced in the flowers of Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium and is the forerunner of the synthetic pyrethroid insecticides. It is available as an emulsifiable concentrate. Pyrethrin is labelled against a large number of pests. It may be moderately to highly effective against leafhoppers, aphids, pear psylla, apple maggot, codling moth, true bugs, caterpillars, mealybugs, plum curculio, and thrips. It is quickly broken down in the environment and may be used up to and including the day of harvest. Pyrethrin is relatively non-toxic to humans and other mammals, although the dust produces allergy attacks in people who are allergic to ragweed pollen. The acute oral LD50 is 1200 to 1500 mg/kg. It is toxic to fish, and has a low bee-poisoning hazard.

Pyriproxyfen (Esteem), which is registered for use in all pome and stone fruits, is a juvenile hormone analog (a type of insect growth regulator) that interferes with the insect’s normal metamorphosis and kills by slowing its growth and causing sterility; ovicidal activity is also exhibited. It shows translaminar properties, so applications on the top surface of the leaf will affect insects on the bottom surface. While it has no activity on adult insects, hatching of eggs laid by treated adults will be suppressed. Although leafrollers and codling moth appear on the label, results from preliminary field trials in the region suggest that it has greatest efficacy on San Jose scale, pear psylla, leafminers and aphids. It has low toxicity or is non-toxic to most beneficial species, and has a low bee poisoning hazard.

Spinetoram (Delegate) is a spinosyn insecticide related to spinosad (below), but which has been chemically modified to be more active and effective against a broader range of insects. It has efficacy against internal feeding Lepidoptera such as codling moth and oriental fruit moth, plus leafrollers and leafminers. It is also labeled for control of pear psylla, thrips, and cherry fruit fly, and shows suppression of apple maggot and plum curculio. Like spinosad, it acts by disrupting insect nerve function. It is nontoxic to birds, fish, aquatic invertebrates, and most beneficial arthropods. It has a low bee-poisoning hazard.

Spinosad (§Entrust, §Seduce bait) is a mixture of spinosyn A and spinosyn D molecules, a naturally derived group of toxicants from a species of Actinomycete bacteria. Spinosad, which acts as both a contact and a stomach poison, is available for use in apples, pears and stone fruits, primarily against obliquebanded leafroller, although activity against spotted tentiform leafminer is also exhibited. Spinosad is essentially nontoxic to birds, fish, aquatic invertebrates, and most beneficials. It has a low bee-poisoning hazard.

Spirotetramat (Movento) is a tetramic acid registered for the control of a number of indirect pests in pome fruits and stone fruits, primarily aphids (including woolly apple aphid), mealybugs, pear psylla, and San Jose scale. It has systemic activity, exhibiting 2-way movement in the plant, both upwards in the xylem to new shoots and leaves, and downwards in the pholem to the root tissues. Its mode of action is as a Lipid Biosynthesis Inhibitor (LBI), and it is active by ingestion against immature insects feeding on treated plants. Additionally, adult females have exhibited reduced fecundity and offspring survival. Movento is not toxic to bees or beneficial arthropods, and poses low risk to wildlife, including fish and birds.

Thiamethoxam/Lambda-cyhalothrin (see Lambda-cyhalothrin/Thiamethoxam)